Mixed Race Studies

Scholarly perspectives on the mixed race experience.

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  • Ethnicity and Ethnically “Mixed” Identity in Belize: A Study of Primary School-Age Children

    Ethnicity and Ethnically “Mixed” Identity in Belize: A Study of Primary School-Age Children

    Anthropology & Education Quarterly
    Volume 29, Issue 1     (March 1998)
    pages 44–67
    DOI: 10.1525/aeq.1998.29.1.44

    Sarah Woodbury Haug

    This article focuses on the ehtnic identity of children in Belize. Belizean nationalism, as taught in the primary schools, is both pan-ethnic and multiethnic. However, because the increasingly widespread practice of ethnic mixing is unacknowledged, there is a discrepancy between what is taught in school and the daily life of children. This has resulted in a paradox. Whereas the overt intent is to recognize and celebrate difference, the result has been to silence children’s voices.

    Teacher: “Everyone here belongs to an ethnic group. You will draw the clothing of your group.”
    Mixed Mestizo/Garifuna girl: “What if you are mixed?”
    Teacher: “It doesn’t matter if you are mixed… you draw the Creole outfit.”
    [Teacher tells four other children of mixed ethnicity which clothing they will draw.]
    Anthropologist to teacher: “What ethnic group are you?”
    Teacher: “I am mixed with Creole and Spanish but my husband is an East Indian.”
    Anthropologist: “What ethnic group do your children belong to?”
    Teacher [laughs and waves her hand dismissively]: “They are just mixed.”
    Anthropologist: “Oh. What did you do with the mixed children in your class?”
    Teacher: “Well, I assigned them to a group.”

    This article illuminates the subjective nature of ethnic identification in a nation-state that promotes multiculturalism and ethnic diversity within its borders. The government of Belize supports the cultures of all its ethnic groups and teaches about them in schools as part of its program of nationalism. The scene above illustrates the combination of issues that are involved in locating children of mixed ethnicity within the government’s ethnic framework in Punta Gorda, a small town of 3,500 people on the southern coast. Because ethnic mixing is unacknowledged by the Belizean government and not discussed in schools, there is a great discrepancy between what is taught in the schools, and the daily life of such children. What schools teach and what children understand are not the same. The silence on the part of the government, however, speaks loudly to children as they attempt to place themselves within the ethnic framework of their community and country.

    To many adults, not only Punta Gordans, children are reflections of the adult world. They are thought of as simple creatures who absorb all that is taught to them (Jenks 1996:2; Stephens 1996:12), or viewed as a means of measuring the values of society (Ndebele 1996:322). They are not, as Stephens writes, “social actors in their own right, engaged in making sense of and recreating the social worlds they inherit” (1996:23-24). However, my research shows that children clearly are active participants in the construction of their own identity, even if their constructions are not recognized by the adult community and even if children are labeled by adults according to adult needs and perceptions…

    Read the entire article here.

  • Gender, Sexuality and the Formation of Racial Identities in the Eighteenth-Century Anglo-Caribbean World

    Gender, Sexuality and the Formation of Racial Identities in the Eighteenth-Century Anglo-Caribbean World

    Gender & History
    Volume 22, Issue 3     (November 2010)
    pages 585–602
    DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0424.2010.01613.x

    Brooke N. Newman, John Carter Brown Library Scholar (2010-2011)
    University of Oxford

    In recent years, scholars have directed considerable attention to the influence of gender relations and sexual practices on developing racial formations in early British America, the colonial Caribbean and the wider British empire. Understanding that unauthorised intimacies in the imperial world threatened notions of Britishness at home has greatly enhanced our knowledge of the complexity and instability of the process of collective identity formation. Building on pioneering research in early American and British imperial history, this article charts the connection between gendered concepts of ‘whiteness’ in Anglo-Caribbean contexts and in metropolitan discourses surrounding British national identity, as articulated in eighteenth-century colonial legislation and official correspondence, popular texts and personal narratives of everyday life. It explores the extent to which the socio-sexual practices of British West Indian whites imperilled the emerging conflation between whiteness and Britishness.

    Read or purchase the article here.

  • History’s most sordid cover-up

    History’s most sordid cover-up

    New African
    February 2004

    Stella Orakwue

    The history of the former European colonies’ mixed-race populations is one of the world’s biggest hidden scandals. How did these populations come about? We did not miraculously or biblically produce mixed-race babies from thin air. Most of the black women were raped…

    …Her children come from the Thurmond family line because Essie Mae Washington (below) has unveiled Strom Thurmond, the American senator famous for having been the country’s leading segregationist,  as her father. Thurmond died last June, aged 100. But in 1948 “Daddy” was very much alive, and kicking out at blacks, coloureds, Negroes, call them what you will. People not as white as he was. People like, as we now know, his daughter…

    For black women, it is a horror subject that is almost blindingly difficult to go near. I’m finding this very difficult to write. I hate what I have to think about. But isn’t that why lies prosper, because people find deeply disturbing subjects too hard to discuss honestly? Therefore, the liars and the lies win. And we live our lives in pain without at least knowing what the source is.

    Press on. Ask any Westerner whether when they visit North and South America, when they visit Africa—especially Southern Africa—when they visit the Caribbean, whether they think that these regions’ huge numbers of mixed-race and very light-skinned people appeared fully formed from nowhere?

    Who originally created these populations of light-skinned people? I know you would think from the acres of trees felled to cover stories about the handful of white women who chose to have sexual relationships with black men during empire days that somehow white women are linked to these communities, but, no, the history of former European colonies’ mixed-race populations has nothing to do with white females.

    How did these populations come about then? Let me make it clear for you. They are with us because black women had babies during the empire days whose fathers were white men. But the black women did not get to choose. They were not volunteers. Let us be precise here. Most of the black women who gave birth to those babies were raped by the white men…

    Read the entire article here.

  • MySpace and Facebook Identities…

    Achin surveyed hundreds of biracial adolescents through MySpace and Facebook, personal connections, and random interviews, asking probing personal questions of how they viewed themselves. She found that their responses clustered into five categories of identity: “Monoracials,” who defined themselves predominantly by a primary peer group; “Bidentifiers,” who identify confidently with more than one racial identity; “Sliders,” who were able to identify with whatever group in which they found themselves; “Raceless,” who refused to identify with any race, but prefer race-neutral descriptors such as “American”; and “Partial People,” who identify themselves as half a person, mostly as half-white, rarely as half-black.

    Sally Holm, “CAMD Scholars Take On Variety of Complex Racial Issues in MLK Jr. Day Presentations,” Phillips Academy News, January 28, 2008.

  • Watershed Moment for Critical Mixed Race Studies

    Watershed Moment for Critical Mixed Race Studies
     
    Laura Kina’s Art Blog
    2010-11-14

    Laura Kina, Associate Professor Art, Media and Design and Director Asian American Studies
    DePaul University

    Critical Mixed Race Studies Inaugural Conference

    On November 5-6, 2010 DePaul University in Chicago, Illinois hosted the inaugural 2010 Critical Mixed Race Studies (CMRS) conference “Emerging Paradigms in Critical Mixed Race Studies.” We had over 450 people registered and 430 people actually showed up from all over the U.S. from Hawaii to Tennessee to New York as well as scholars from Canada, Korea, and the UK…

    …We want to thank everyone who participated in making CMRS 2010 happen and we are looking forward to the next steps for Critical Mixed Race Studies: founding an association and a peer reviewed online journal; planning for CMRS 2012 at DePaul University and CMRS 2014 (hopefully at the University of Washington); looking for ways us to continue to stay in touch virtually (listserv, dedicated website); and ways to keep the momentum going for CMRS for 2011. There is a lot of work to do and we’ll be sending out the business minutes shortly with ways for you all to get involved…

    Read the entire article here.

  • A Silenced History from Belgian Congo: A Mixed Race History

    A Silenced History from Belgian Congo: A Mixed Race History

    Afro-Europe International Blog
    2010-06-15

    Sibo Kano

    The Bastards in Our Colony: Hidden Stories of Belgian Metis

    You haven’t heard much from me lately. I was writing a book and it’s finally finished and published. The book I wrote together with Kathleen Ghequière traces back a history of Africa and Europe that has been ignored for too much time. Some of you know about the mixed race children of Australia thanks to movies such as ‘Rabbit Proof Fence’ or even Baz Luhrmann’s latest ‘Australia’. But concerning Africa this history is unknown.

    It seems as if the European colonizer didn’t have intimate relationships with the African colonized. But many children were born out of relations between white Europeans and black Africans during colonization. These children undermined the racial colonial order with their existence. These children have been hidden and their stories silenced. At least for the Belgian Congo this story is now unveiled and in this book the mixed race children of Belgium and Congo express their history freely…

    Read the entire article here.

  • The struggle for selfhood in multiracial adolescents: Identify formation in Asian-White mixed race youth

    The struggle for selfhood in multiracial adolescents: Identify formation in Asian-White mixed race youth

    Widener University, Institute for Graduate Clinical Psychology
    May 2008
    184 pages
    Publication Number: AAT 3405230
    ISBN: 9781109705614

    Leilani Salvo Crane

    A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Institute for Graduate Clinical Psychology College of Arts and Sciences Widener University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Psychology

    This qualitative study identified factors that contribute to racial identity development in multiracial Asian-White adolescents. The research sample was comprised of 12 mixed-race Asian-White Americans between the ages of 16 and 23 years, 7 females and 5 males. They represent a variety of Asian-White mixes: 4 Japanese American-White; 3 Chinese-White or Chinese American-White; 2 Filipino American-White; 1 Japanese-Chinese-White; and 1 Hawaiian-Spanish-Filipino-Chinese-White. Biracial Asian-Black individuals were excluded due to the well-documented American tendency to classify mixed-race individuals of Black descent as “Black.” The participants were drawn from two sources, a book of interviews conducted and compiled by Pearl Fuyo Gaskins entitled, What Are You? Voices of Mixed-Race Young People, and a “fictional autobiography” by Kip Fulbeck entitled, paper bullets. Participants were chosen to represent a broad spectrum of Asian descent, geographical location, age, and gender. The first-person accounts were analyzed using a qualitative method devised by Carol Gilligan and colleagues, the Listening Guide Method. The method was modified by employing a tabular sorting of themes identified in the various stages of analysis dictated by the Listening Guide Method. The findings indicated several shared themes that impacted the participants’ process of racial identification. Key findings included sensitivity to other racial minorities, experiences of exoticization and objectification, not fitting in, racial pride, and experiences of racism. These in turn contributed to the participants feelings of anger toward the majority White culture, pain at not fitting in to this culture, “invisibility,” or lack of recognition by the majority culture, and having an unclear sense of self.

    Based on data from well-being studies, multiracial Asian American identity development models, and the results of the current analyses, the study concluded that exposure to a reference group of multiracial Asian-White individuals is a critical contributor to the development of positive racial self-view. The study acknowledges that experiences of racism, marginalization, and invisibility negatively impact identity development in mixed-race Asian-White adolescents, and that clinical interventions should include exposure to Asian-White reference groups.

    Purchase the dissertation here.

  • CAMD Scholars Take On Variety of Complex Racial Issues in MLK Jr. Day Presentations

    CAMD Scholars Take On Variety of Complex Racial Issues in MLK Jr. Day Presentations

    Phillips Academy
    Andover, Massachusetts
    2008-01-28

    Sally Holm

    January 28, 2008 — Simone Hill ’08 had good reason to be excited last Monday. Chosen as a featured speaker for one of Phillips Academy’s Martin Luther King Jr. Day special events, the CAMD scholar presented her research on diversity, whose trail led her back more than 150 years into the dust of family history. And in the audience were not just her peers and teachers: her parents, Everett Hill ’77 and Dr. Yasmin Tyler-Hill from Atlanta, and her grandparents, from tiny Ridgeland, S.C., where the trail ended, were right there as well.

    …The CAMD Scholars program was created last spring by the Office of Community and Multicultural Development (CAMD) to allow students to apply for research grants to pursue topics in multiculturalism during their summer vacations from school. Funded by the Abbot Academy Foundation, the scholarship provides a small stipend and a faculty advisor to each student selected. Three scholars presented during the fall term and three others spoke on MLK Jr. Day….

    CAMD Scholar Britney Achin ’08 began her session with an exercise meant to educate her audience on the difficulties biracial teenagers face with identity in today’s social milieu. She asked everyone to answer the question “What am I?” in a brief phrase, then share it with a small group in the audience. Most seemed to find it difficult to capture complex selves—especially the offspring of interracial parents, as Achin is herself. Her research project was titled “I Am: A Study of Self Identification among Biracial Teenagers.” Mundra served as her advisor.

    Achin surveyed hundreds of biracial adolescents through MySpace and Facebook, personal connections, and random interviews, asking probing personal questions of how they viewed themselves. She found that their responses clustered into five categories of identity: “Monoracials,” who defined themselves predominantly by a primary peer group; “Bidentifiers,” who identify confidently with more than one racial identity; “Sliders,” who were able to identify with whatever group in which they found themselves; “Raceless,” who refused to identify with any race, but prefer race-neutral descriptors such as “American”; and “Partial People,” who identify themselves as half a person, mostly as half-white, rarely as half-black.

    Achin compared relative levels of turmoil and self-doubt, as well as confidence and self-knowledge, reflected by each group. She said she found that, without fail, PA students offered the most insightful responses. “I believe that speaks very highly of the work done by the school to make us aware of ourselves and others—our differences and similarities, racial and otherwise,” Achin said…

    Read the entire article here.

  • School counselors’ perceptions of biracial students’ functioning

    School counselors’ perceptions of biracial students’ functioning

    Columbia University
    September 2010
    178 pages
    Publication Number: AAT 3400544
    ISBN: 9781109673753

    Mai Margaret Kindaichi

    Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy under the Executive Committee of The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Columbia University

    The number of biracial school-aged youth has continued to increase dramatically (Jones & Smith, 2001), and has drawn timely attention to the extent to which practicing school counselors address biracial youths’ concerns in a culturally competent manner. This study examined the perceptions of a nationally-based random sample of 203 White school counselors who provided their assessment of a students functioning (i.e., GAF) and case conceptualizations (i.e., multicultural case conceptualization ability [MCCA]; Ladany et al., 1997) in response to a summary of a fictitious student. In the summary, the student was identified as White, Black, Asian, Biracial Black-White, Biracial Black- Asian, or Biracial Asian-White; the student summaries were identical less the racial background of the identified student. Potential differences in assessments of students’ functioning and inclusion of racial-cultural information in case conceptualizations were examined across the six student conditions, which yielded non-significant results. Nearly 89% and 93% of participants failed to address race or culture in their conceptualizations of students’ presenting concerns and treatment conceptualizations, respectively. Additionally, school counselors’ denial of racism (i.e., color-blind racial attitudes) was shown to moderate their inclusion of racial-cultural information in their treatment conceptualizations across students’ racial backgrounds. Implications of the findings, future research directions, and multicultural education in school counseling curricula are discussed.

    Table of Contents

    • CHAPTER I
      • INTRODUCTION
        • Multicultural Counseling Competence in School Counselors
        • Color-Blind Racial Attitudes
        • Attitudes toward Multiracial Youth
        • Overview of the Dissertation Project
    • CHAPTER II
      • LITERATURE REVIEW
        • Multicultural Counseling Competence in School Settings
        • Explanation of Terms
        • Research concerning Biracial Individuals
          • Unique Challenges in Research Concerning Biracial and Multiracial Individuals
          • Perceptions of Biracial and Multiracial Individuals and Interracial Marriage
          • Empirical Literature on Biracial Adolescents’ Psychological Well-Being and Adjustment
          • Summary Models of Biracial Identity Development and Identity Resolution
          • School Professionals’ Attitudes toward Biracial and Multiracial Children and Adolescents
        • Color-Blind Racial Attitudes
        • Summary and Research Questions
    • CHAPTER III
      • METHOD
        • Research Goals
        • Participants and Sampling Method
        • Sample
        • Instruments
    • CHAPTER IV
      • RESULTS:
        • Preliminary Analyses
        • Main Analyses
          • Question 1
          • Question 2
          • Question 3
          • Question 4
          • Question 5
        • Summary
    • CHAPTER V
      • DISCUSSION
        • Limitations
        • Implications for Education and Training
        • Future Research Directions
    • REFERENCES
    • APPENDICES
    • APPENDIX A. SAMPLE SURVEY PACKET
    • APPENDIXB. COLOR-BLIND RACIAL ATTITUDES SUBSCALES
    • APPENDIX C. ATTITUDES TOWARD MULTIRACIAL CHILDREN CODING
    • APPENDIX D. CODING SCHEME FOR MULTICULTURAL CASE CONCEPTUALIZATION ABILITY

    List of Tables

    • Table 1. Summary of Stage Progressions in Linear Biracial Identity Development Models
    • Table 2. Demographic Characteristics of Participants
    • Table 3. Participants’ Demographic Information across Student Conditions
    • Table 4. Participants’ Descriptions of School Counseling Settings
    • Table 5. Mean GAF, MCCA Etiology, and MCCA Treatment Scores across Student Conditions and Participants’ Race/Ethnicity
    • Table 6. Mean CoBRAS Subscale and AMCS Scores by Student Condition and Participants’ Race/Ethnicity
    • Table 7. Correlations among White School Counselors’ Experience, Race-Related Attitudes, Case Conceptualization Ability, and GAF Scores
    • Table 8. Analysis of Variance in GAF by Student Conditions (N=201)
    • Table 9. Hierarchical Regression of School Counselors’ AMCS and CoBRAS Scores on GAF Scores for Biracial Students (N = 83)
    • Table 10. Analyses of Variance in MCCA Etiology and MCCA Treatment by Students’ Backgrounds (N=201)
    • Table 11. Multivariate Analysis of Variance in MCCA Etiology, MCCA Treatment, and GAF Scores
    • Table 12. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Moderator Effects

    List of Figures

    • Figure 1: Frequency Distribution of MCCA Etiology Scores Offered by White School Counselors across Student Conditions
    • Figure 2: Frequency Distribution of MCCA Treatment scores offered by White School Counselors across Student Conditions
    • Figure 3: Interaction Effect of Color-Blind Racial Attitudes across Student Conditions on Mean MCCA Treatment Scores

    Purchase the dissertation here.

  • West Meets East: Nineteenth-Century Southern Dialogues on Mixture, Race, Gender, and Nation

    West Meets East: Nineteenth-Century Southern Dialogues on Mixture, Race, Gender, and Nation

    The Mississippi Quarterly
    Volume 56, Number 4 (Fall 2003)

    Suzanne Bost, Associate Professor of English
    Loyola University

    When I was growing up in the Eastern half of the United States, American history was presented to me in neatly binary terms: Cowboys and Indians, North and South, Black and White. There were binaries when my family moved out West, too, but the demarcations were in different places: North or South of the border, English or Spanish, hamburgers with or without green chile. Here, sometimes cowboys were Indians, and Mexicans were Americans. The fact that my Eastern home was North and my Western home was South complicated matters further, and I learned to accept that Southerners, though never victorious, were not always as misguided as my first teachers had suggested they were. The deconstruction of American myths and binaries began for me long before I learned to see the world through the lenses of postmodernism or the new American Studies. Moreover, this racial and national decentering occurred not by way of contemporary globalization or NAFTA but throughout American history.

    Mestizaje and hybridity are popular concepts today because they lift identity from singular categories and frameworks. They are celebrated, along with Tiger Woods, fusion cuisine, and the Internet, as transracial, transnational frameworks for new, millennial Americans. For Mexicans and Mexican Americans, however, hybridity and racial and national decentering are not a postmodern horizon but rather long-standing historical facts. Racial mixture was part of the Spanish colonial strategy for, literally, “hispanicizing” the natives and acquiring their lands. As such, mixture has been central to the formation of racism, nationalism, resistance, and identity politics in most Southern Americas for centuries. In nineteenth-century Mexico, mestizaje was nationalistic, not transgressive or defiant of norms, while in the Southeastern United States, miscegenation represented a breakdown in the definition of American identity…

    Read the entire article here.