Mixed Race Studies

Psychological Adjustment, Behavior and Health Problems in Multiracial Young Adults

University of Maryland, College Park
2006
236 pages

Warren L. Kelley

Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2006

This study: (1) examined whether multiracial young adults reported lower levels of well-being relative to their White and monoracial minority peers and whether these outcomes were moderated by college attendance or racial identification; and (2) investigated factors, drawn from Root’s (2003) ecological model of multiracial identity development, during adolescence that could predict better well-being outcomes for young adults. Participants were 18-26 years old and drawn from the Wave III archival data of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Bearman, Jones, & Udry, 1997), a nationally representative school-based probability sample of participants initially surveyed in 1994-1995, with the Wave III follow-up conducted six years later in 2001-2002. Using a subset of 14,644 participants (615 multiracial, 4,686 monoracial minority, and 9,343 White) the multiracial young adults reported statistically higher levels of depression, drug abuse and physical limitations, and lower levels of self worth than their monoracial counterparts. Effect sizes (partial eta squared), however, were so small, varying between .001 and .003, that these statistical findings did not represent meaningful differences. Therefore, the current study found evidence of fewer difficulties of multiracial young adults relative to their monoracial peers, when compared to previous researchers who studied the same sample as adolescents and found consistent patterns of negative well-being (Milan & Keiley, 2000; Udry et al., 2003). In part this may be because previous researchers did not present effect sizes. Using a second subset of 8,978 participants (402 multiracial, 2,617 monoracial minority, and 5,959 White) a two phased, multi-group structural equation model examined the relationship between adolescence and young adulthood factors and found that multiracial participants had the highest path coefficients for depression and living with both biological parents in comparison to their monoracial counterparts. College attendance was found to not change the relationship of multiracial young adults on reported well-being outcomes in comparison to their monoracial counterparts. In the area of multiracial identification, there was no evidence that multiracial young adults who reported their racial category as multiracial versus monoracial exhibited higher well-being outcomes. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

• List of Tables
• List of Figures
• Chapter 1 – Introduction
• Chapter 2 – Review of the Literature
  • Defining What it Means to be Multiracial
  • Multiracial Identity Models
  • Factors Influencing Well Being and Identity Development
    • Family environment
    • School, Friends and Neighborhood Environments
    • Generational/Societal Acceptance
    • Multiracial Change From Adolescence to Young Adulthood
    • College Experience
  • Adjustment Outcomes in Multiracial Young People
    • Self Esteem
    • Psychological, Behavior and Health Outcomes Using Add Health Data
• Chapter 3 – Statement of Problem
• Chapter 4 – Method
  • Design Statement
  • Participants
  • Measures
  • Procedures
• Chapter 5 – Results
  • Preliminary Analyses
  • Hypotheses 1a and 1b
  • Hypothesis 2
  • Hypothesis 3
  • Additional Analyses
• Chapter 6 – Discussion
  • Summary
  • Multiracial Young Adults and Well-being
  • Adolescent Predictors of Well-being in Multiracial Young Adults
  • Multiracial Identity Development and Well-being
  • Limitations
  • Implications for Practice
  • Areas of Future Research
• Appendix A – Add Health Project Description
• Appendix B – Initial and Final Items
• Appendix C – Wave I and Wave III Item Comparison
• References

LIST OF TABLES

1. Comparison Psychological Adjustment, Behaviors and Health/Somatization Significant Findings
2. Demographic comparisons of retained and removed participants
3. SEM measurement model fit indices (whole sample Wave I-III subset 8,978)
4. Summary of Initial and Final Latent Constructs and Factors
5. M, SD and Intercorrelations among predictor and outcome variables using Wave I-III subset of 8,978 participants
6. M, SD and Intercorrelations among predictor and outcome variables using Wave I-III subset of 402 multiracial participants.
7. SEM Single and Multi-group Model Fit Indices
8. Multi-group Comparisons on Factor Loadings for the Measurement Model
9. Factor loadings and structural paths released
10. Racial Identification Change from Wave I to Wave III
11. Multiracial identification and Wave III dependent factors
12. College vs. non-college participants compared at Wave I factors
13. Wave I parental income and Wave III outcome factors – Pearson correlation and simple regression
14. Race specific categories using Wave III subset of 14,644
15. Means, Standard Deviations for Wave III outcomes for monoracial groups and selective multiracial groups
16. Significant ANOVA results shown across Wave III dependent factors for specific multiracial groups

LIST OF FIGURES

1. SEM Initial Measurement and Structural Model
2. SEM Final Measurement and Structural Model
3. SEM Final Multi-group Structural Model with Path Coefficients

Read the entire dissertation here.

Challenges and Resilience in the Lives of Multiracial Adults: The Development and Validation of a Measure

Nazish M. Salahuddin

University of Maryland, College Park
2008
141 pages

Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2008

The purpose of the present study was to develop and validate the Multiracial Challenges and Resilience Scale (MCRS). The MCRS is a measure of the types of challenges (i.e., Others’ Surprise/Disbelief Reactions, Lack of Family Acceptance/Understanding, Multiracial Discrimination, Feelings of Disconnection from Family and Friends) and resilience (i.e., Appreciation of Human Differences, Multiracial Pride) experienced by Multiracial adults. Participants (N = 317) included a national sample of individuals who identified their biological parents as representing two or more different racial groups. All participants resided in large metropolitan areas within the continental United States at the time of data collection. Data were collected through the use of an internet survey containing the MCRS and measures used to assess convergent and discriminant validity. Internal consistency estimates of subscales ranged from .76 to .83. Convergent validity was supported through positive relations of the Challenge subscales with depression and positive relations of the Resilience scales with self-esteem. Discriminant validity was supported through the absence of correlations between the Challenges scales and Orderliness and lack of relationship between the Resilience scales and Social Desirability. Directions for future research and the limitations of this study are discussed.

Table of Contents

• Acknowledgments
• Table of Contents
• List of Tables
• Chapter 1: Introduction
  • Theoretical Basis
  • Definitions: Race and Racism
  • Racism and Multiracial Adults
  • Research Summary of Multiracial Challenges and Resilience
  • Race-related Challenges
  • Positive Adaptations
  • Shih and Sanchez (2005): A comprehensive literature review
  • Current measures
  • Conclusion
• Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
  • Resilience Theory and Critical Race Theory
    • Resilience Theory
    • Resilience and Critical Race Theory
  • Race-related Challenges
    • Racism
    • Social Invalidation
    • Negative Psychological Outcomes
  • Resilience Gained Through Multiracial Experience
    • Enhanced Social Functioning
    • Positive Psychological Outcomes
  • Shih and Sanchez (2005): A comprehensive Literature Review
  • Current Measures
  • Conclusion
• Chapter 3: Method and Results
  • Phase One: MCRS Item Development
    • Phase One Method
    • Phase One Hypotheses
    • Phase One Results
  • Phase Two: Factor Analyses and Initial Reliability and Validity Estimates
    • Phase Two Method
      • Participants
      • Procedure
      • Measures
      • Phase Two Hypotheses
      • Phase Two Analyses
      • Phase Two Results
      • Demographic Information for Sample A
      • Factor analyses for Challenges Scale: Sample A
      • Demographic information for Sample B
      • Factor analyses for Challenges Scale: Sample B
      • Factor analyses for Resilience Scale: Sample A
      • Factor analyses for Resilience Scale: Sample B

  • Description of Factors on the Multiracial Challenges and Resilience Scale
  • Descriptive Analyses: Description of Sample
  • Relationships Between Factors on the MCRS
    • Phase Three: Additional Reliability Estimates

      • Phase Three Method
        • Participants
        • Procedures
        • Measures
      • Phase Three Hypotheses
      • Phase Three Analysis
      • Phase Three Results
    • Post Hoc Analyses
      • Assessment of Mean Differences in MCRS scores
      • Assessment of the Usefulness of MCRS Subscales as Predictors of Self-esteem
      • Further investigation of the relationships of Disconnection and Multiracial
      • Pride with Self-esteem
• Chapter 4: Discussion
  • Description of sample
  • Potential Biases in the Data Due to Sampling Procedure
  • Hypothesized and actual factor structures of MCRS
  • Convergent and Discriminant Validity of the MCRS
  • Test Re-test Reliability
  • Post-hoc Analyses
  • Future Research and Possible Interventions
  • Limitations
  • Conclusion
• APPENDIX A: Multiracial Challenges and Resilience Scale
• APPENDIX B: Social Connectedness Scale
• APPENDIX C: Satisfaction with Life Scale
• APPENDIX D: Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale
• APPENDIX E: Multi-Ethnic Identity Measure
• APPENDIX F: Social Self-efficacy Scale
• APPENDIX G: Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale
• APPENDIX H: Order
• APPENDIX I: Marlowe-Crown Social Desirability Scale Form C
• APPENDIX J: Demographic Questionnaire
• References

LIST OF TABLES

• Table 1. Final items retained on Challenges scale for Sample A and Sample B
• Table 2. Final items retained on Resilience scale for Sample A and Sample B
• Table 3. Bivariate Correlations Among Scales and Internal Consistency Estimates,Means, Standard Deviations, Actual Ranges, and Possible Ranges of Measured Variables
• Table 4. Test Re-test Reliability Estimates for the Multiracial Risk and Resilience Subscales and Actual Range, Possible Range, and Alpha Coefficients
• Table 5. Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Self-esteem
• Table 6. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses Testing Multiracial Pride as a Moderator between Disconnection from Family and Friends and Self-esteem
• Table 7. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses Testing Self-esteem as a Moderator between Disconnection from Family and Friends and Multiracial Pride

Read the entire dissertation here.

The nature of bi-ethnic identity in young adults of Asian and European descent and their perceptions of familial influences on its development

University of Maryland
Department of Human Development
2009

Amanda Laurel Wagner Hoa

The purpose of this study was to identify the key constructs of bi-ethnic identity, the key familial influences, and other salient influences on bi-ethnic identity as perceived by young adults of Asian and European descent. The rapidly changing demographics of the United States provide an impetus for research on the developmental processes of bi-ethnic individuals. In this qualitative study, participants were interviewed about their bi-ethnic identities and possible influences on bi-ethnic identity development. Data analysis for this study incorporated techniques from grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) and analytic induction (LeCompte & Preissle, 1993). Five bi-ethnic identity types emerged from participants’ responses to interview questions: majority identity, minority identity, dual identity, integrated identity, and unresolved identity. These identity types are a unique contribution to the literature in that they specify how individuals of Asian and European descent define themselves. Additionally, this study identified four facets of bi-ethnic identity that indicate how bi-ethnic individuals think and feel about their background: centrality, self-label, affirmation, and affect. Six categories of influences on bi-ethnic identity development emerged from responses to interview questions (parental, extended family, personal, peer, environmental, discrimination), with 18 subcategories. This study is important because most prior research on bi-ethnic identity has focused on uncovering developmental stages, while we lack understanding of the nature of bi-ethnic identity and influences on its development. This study was important given the dearth of research on bi-ethnic Asians, although future research is needed with other bi-ethnic groups.

Download restricted until 2015-10-06.

Shifting Whiteness: A Life History Approach to U.S. White Parents of “Biracial” or “Black” Children

Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Joshua Carter Woodfork, Doctor of Philosophy, 2005

This research examines how the experiences of parenting “biracial” or “black” children have affected the beliefs of white parents who have published books and essays regarding their situations.  The participating parents claim that because of their relationship with their children of African descent their self-understandings, including their own sense of their racial identity, are altered.  They now speak of themselves as “not quite white,” “black by proxy,” or as a “bridge” (between the races).  My dissertation, “Shifting Whiteness: A Life History Approach to U.S. White Parents of ‘Biracial’ or ‘Black’ Children,” explores how such parents talk about and conceptualize their experiences, including the implications of these parents’ claims of racial identity transformation.

This dissertation posits that the white parents’ shift in attitudes and beliefs reflects their vivid engagement with the racism and racial experiences that their children endure.  The discord between the parents’ claim of racial transformation and their continued benefiting from white privilege is also examined. Consideration of the parents’ shifts provides a better understanding of racial beliefs and transformations at the individual, micro-level, which contributes to society’s general knowledge about the conception of race.

Understanding white parents’ decisions to write about their identity transformations as—to use Michael Omi and Howard Winant’s (1994) phrase—a “racial project,” I investigate its aims and limits, exploring which racial projects are presented by this group of U.S. white parents of biracial and black children. John L. Caughey’s (1994) approach to how individuals operate with “cultural traditions” and ideas of “border crossing” also provide theoretical frameworks.  Tools of analysis include ethnographic life history methods, textual analysis, critical race theory, and intersectional analysis.  My research method involves complementing a close reading of the writings of these authors that are white and parents with qualitative ethnographic life history interviews that gather detailed information from each of these individuals. I treat their publications together with my transcribed interviews as case studies through which I compare and contrast the similarities and differences in the belief changes and shifting that these informants have undergone, as well as their current constructions of race.

Read the entire dissertation here.